Lekythos Essay Example for Free

Lekythos Essay A lekythos is an ancient Greek vase made of ceramic; the plural of lekythos is lekythoi (Reference #2). It has a narrow neck, single handle, and is tall with a small, deep mouth (Reference #7). The lekythos was used as a flask, used to hold olive oil and perfumes (Reference #1), and were developed in ancient Athens during the fifth century. In Classical Athens, lekythoi were painted in white ground with figurative scenes. White ground is a form of art used by Athenians in which they created the vase, fired it, and then the lekythos was painted in white. The figures and scenes were then painted on top of the white ground. This method meant that the paintings did not last as well, but were very beautiful in their original state (Reference # 8). Lekythoi were mainly used during funerary rituals, but they were also used by Greek athletes. In ancient Greece, the athletes would practice and compete outdoors, getting themselves covered in sand and dirt. Rather than cleaning themselves at the bath-house, they would rub themselves down with olive oil from a lekythos, then scrape off the excess dirt and oil, leaving their skin soft and clean (Reference #8). The lekythoi used by athletes would be covered in depictions of scenes from Greek mythology, often including imagery of Greek goods such as Zeus and Achilles (Reference #8). The role of lekythoi in funerary rituals is made clear by their excavation from cemeteries and tombs (Reference #7). A lekythos that was meant to be used during a burial ceremony would be painted with scenes of mourning or scenes from the life of the deceased (Reference #5). These lekythoi were sometimes painted with scenes depicting Greek gods, perhaps to cast the deceased in the light of heroic warriors of history (Reference #8). Researchers have been able to put together the funeral process the Athenians went through, and have found that lekythoi played a key role in funerary rites. Firstly, a lekythos would be brought in during the preparation of the body for burial. The body would be prepared by a woman from the same household as the deceased, and it would then be anointed by the oil from the lekythos (Reference #6). Secondly, some lekythoi were filled with scented oils and perfumes and placed around the body, while others were set along the approach to the grave or placed beside the tomb (Reference #5). This was done as a part of the religious focus of the burial ceremony, and was given as an offering. Lastly, a lekythos would often be brought to the gravesite or tomb of the deceased after the burial. It was very important to ancient Greeks to visit the gravesite of loved ones quite often, and when they visited, they would bring offerings to the deceased such as fruit, a feast, or a lekythos filled with olive oil or perfume (Reference #6). In time, the Lekythos was developed into a much larger version of itself, being called â€Å"Huge Lekythoi†. These were often left on top of a grave, or beside a tomb opening, almost as an ancient grave marker (Reference #7). Though they would not be inscribed with any words or the name of the deceased, they would have a painted scene depicting the deceased, some scene from their life, or a scene depicting a sport or activity the deceased greatly enjoyed. Many lekythoi have been recovered and are currently housed in museums all over the world. Though many are not in their original glory, most have been reconstructed. New lekythoi have been made in Greece and are still used today in some small Greek communities during the preparation of the body, and left by the tombstone of the deceased.

Heroes of Celtic and Germanic Mythology Essay -- Celtic Germanic Mytho

Heroes of Celtic and Germanic Mythology Throughout the myths of the Celtic and Germanic peoples of northern Europe tales of epic heroes and their extraordinary deeds abound. These tales depict heroes performing a variety of incredible feats; many of which appear to be magical, superhuman, and, quite honestly, utterly impossible (e.g., wading across oceans, defeating armies virtually single-handedly, and other astounding exploits). Since the Celtic and Germanic tribes of antiquity inhabited neighboring lands and lived in close proximity to one another (as many of their modern descendants continue to do: i.e., in Great Britain), it is not surprising that they often established intimate relationships with each other via commerce, conquest, and the spread of religious beliefs. In light of this intimate association, it is not astonishing that the cultural and consequent poetic traditions of these ethnic groups were often remarkably analogous. Frequently, the archetypical champions of Celtic and Germanic mythology exhibited similar characteristics regardless of whether or not they were Anglo-Saxon, Rhenish, or Irish. Indeed, there are many parallels between the behaviors demonstrated by the heroes of Beowulf, the Nibelungenlied, and the Tain Bo Cuailnge. Some of the most striking of these parallels are: the noble and divine lineage of the hero; the hero’s increased endurance and his exceptional combat abilities (including the use of powerful weapons and berserker behavior); the hero’s ability to attain victory against seemingly insurmountable odds or indestructible creatures; and the ritual practices of the taking of heads and the giving of rings. The epic poem Beowulf may be considered unique in the context of mythol... ...kely exception being Cuchulainn). Interestingly, as a result of the parallels between these champions, one can gain important insights regarding the values of ancient Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, or Rhenish culture by examining any one of them. Bibliography Beowulf. Translated by Chickering, Jr., Howell D. New York: Random House, Inc. 1977. Crossley-Holland, Kevin. The Norse Myths. New York: Random House, Inc. 1980. Davidson, H.R. Ellis. Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. 1988. The Nibelungenlied. Translated by Hatto, A.T. London: The Penguin Group. 1969. Powell, T.G.E. The Celts. New York: Thames and Hudson, Inc. 1980. The Tain: From the Irish Epic Tain Bo Cuailnge. Translated by Kinsella, Thomas. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. 1969.

Egyptian art Essay

Egyptian art is one of the most fascinating topics in both ancient art and ancient history. As a culture, the Egyptians truly represented themselves through their art and as a result produced a body of work that is rivaled only by the Renaissance. In the two reliefs pictured, the Egyptian ideal is pictured. This compares to the palette of King Narmer and the tomb of Ti in Saqqara. One thing that we can say about Egyptian art is that it does not change much over time. This can clearly be seen in the overall style of both of the reliefs pictured. One was done during the Sixth Dynasty and the other was done during the First Intermediate Period. The similarities in style are marked. From the stylized view of the head to the way the arms and body are drawn, the similarities are striking. This is compared with the Palette of King Narmer, which is from the Predynastic period. The same stylized images are displayed in this palette as in the two reliefs. Even in the tomb painting of Ti at Saqqara, one sees the same stylized images in living color. When we look at the Portrait of Ni’Ankhesut, one sees a relief image of a male wearing a headdress of non-noble bearing. He is also wearing a necklace, though we cannot see much detail. Our subject is seated, and above him we see some Egyptian hieroglyphics. These are probably cartouche in nature, that is, they reflect the subject’s name and rank within Egyptian society. The relief is composed in limestone, which was the primary building material of the time. The Funerary Stele of Iamu is another typical work of Egyptian art. Like the portrait, it is also composed limestone, but in this case, it tells a story. The Egyptians took their afterlife traditions and rituals very seriously and to that end, made sure the story of the deceased’s life and afterlife was told in detail. In this case, the tale being told is that of death. This relief shows the funerary rites as they are performed as well as hieroglyphics that explain what exactly is going on. In this case, the relief shows the process involved in serving the master and in creating the facade that is the Egyptian afterlife. Both of these reliefs contrast to the Narmer Palette. This is a two-sided object that is arrowhead shaped. Many archeologists feel as though it shows the dominance of Upper Egypt over Lower Egypt. Narmer is presumed to be a mythical god-king who presumably united Upper and Lower Egypt. Narmer is displayed prominently on both sides of the palette, and while there are some themes that are common in Mesopotamian art, there are aspects that are uniquely Egyptian. The partial profiling of the figure with the front view of the hands is Egyptian in and of itself and shows that Egyptian art had a style all its own even at the early juncture of its history. This palette also tells a story, that is, it tells the bloody story of the unification of the two parts of Egypt. This is also a theme that is indicative to Egyptian art. The nature of the storytelling that each piece tells shows that the Egyptians are very much interested in showing their own story and history through their art. Even at this early juncture, they saw art as a means of cultural transmission, and used it effectively to create the story of their own beginnings. Finally, the last piece of art is the tomb of Ti at Saqqara. This piece of art is unlike the others, in the fact that it still retains its original color. In this scene, we see who we can presume is Ti sailing on the Nile that is overflowing with fish and other marine life. He is with other warriors and is presumably hunting hippopotami and birds in the marshes. Again, the relief is highly stylized with no variations in the human form. As with the other reliefs noticed, there are no variations in the human form. Each person looks almost identical to the last, and the only way that one would know the difference between the various people is by looking at their cartouche or knowing what tomb one is in. It is even difficult to tell who is who in the relief images without the help of the hieroglyphic writing. What are the ways we tell who is who in the various relief pictures that we are exposed to in Egyptian art? One of the major ways that we can tell is by looking at the size of the person that is displayed. What does this tell us? What it says is that the largest person in the picture is usually is the main subject of the tomb or the hieroglyphics. The smaller figures are usually minor players or servants. Even spouses are sometimes displayed smaller in respect to the main figures. The main protagonist of the painting or relief is prominently displayed with the accompanying cartouche and tomb writings more than capably tell who is who in the grand story. If we look at the portrait of Ni’Ankhesut, we see that he is the largest figure in the relief. In the Funerary Stele of Iamu, we see that Iamu is most prominently displayed. Again, both of these examples show the casual observer who is the prominent figure in the relief. Additionally, the cartouche and the tomb writings show us easily who is the main protagonist. In the Narmer palette, Narmer is prominently displayed on one side of the palette, taking up nearly the entire side. This is the most telling sign of Egyptian art and supremacy of the figure. By making King Narmer the largest figure in the palette, the artist is showing the supremacy and the importance of Narmer in the history of Egypt. What can we learn from Egyptian art? We can learn that this group created a fascinating body of work that has permeated the world in which not only they lived, but we live as well. Without the Egyptians, we would not have modern portrait art and the art of realism that exists today. Though Egyptian art is highly stylized, we see shades of ourselves in their work. All cultures can look to the Egyptians for their own inspiration for their own art and culture. Each culture took from the Egyptians to form their own unique art forms and their own stylizations and themes. As a modern culture, we can look to the Egyptians for inspiration for the future, and we can look for them to reinforce our past so we can continue to learn more about the fascinating culture that continues to affect us even today.

Discussing the Positive and Negative Aspects of Including...

1.0 Introduction Play is a common word used during the early year’s program in the current educational era. Play is been implemented as a subject in the current international school that I am attached too. Children play every day and it is now seen as being crucial to the development of the child (Tassoni and Hucker, 2000:1). Playing is a way of experiencing bodily, emotional sensations through engaging with the immediate real, imagined social and physical environment in any number of ways, when the player has a sense of control (Wolmuth, 2000:2). Thus, play carries a heavy weight in student’s early days. Tassoni and Hucker added by stating that playtime is often said to be child’s work carry out playing (2000:1a). Truly speaking,†¦show more content†¦A German Educationist, Friedrich Froebel said that ‘recognition of the importance of play as a central integrating element in a childs development and learning’ (Scherle et al, 2014). Downey and Garzoli from S onoma State University strengthens the statement by stating that Maria Montessori and Froebel developed the curriculum by including play as a subject, which subsequently gives teachers an insight into what children are interested in. These results to develop the curriculum from those interests discovered (2007). In terms of child development, The Montana State University supports Froebel’s theory by stating that play helps children to learn social and motor skills as well as cognitive thinking skills (2010). For example, during play activity, children are able to communicate along with their peers in their settings. During certain period, play is helpful and provides children not only knowledge but also the skills to get along with other (Bailey, 2014). Therefore, it is a basic way of children practicing their communications skills as well as their social skills during play. Apart from that, play should be included in the curriculum in order to develop children’s creativity. During playtime, students are able to develop and solve problem creativity in addition allows children to feel good about themselves (Bower, 2010). Play is also recreation quite literally; play allows one to create and recreate the world through one’s won senses and feelings in a relaxed andShow MoreRelatedThe Foundation Phase Of The Curriculum2216 Words   |  9 PagesThe Foundation Phase of the curriculum is the curriculum which has been set for children between the ages of 3 and 7 and has been based around the creativity, imagination of the child and to help with the meeting of the developmental needs of the child. In 2008 the Welsh Assembly Government (WAG) decided to bring together the Early Years curriculum and the 5-7 years curriculum, which then created the Framework for Children’s Learning for 3 to 7-year olds in Wales (The Framework). The Framework cle arlyRead MoreUnderstanding The Foundation Phase Of The Curriculum2191 Words   |  9 Pagesof the curriculum is the curriculum which has been set for children between the ages of 3 and 7. It has been based around the creativity and imagination of the child to help with meeting developmental needs of the child. In 2008 the Welsh Assembly Government (WAG) decided to bring together the Early Years curriculum with the 5-7 years curriculum, which created the Framework for Children’s Learning for 3 to 7-year olds in Wales (The Framework). The Framework clearly states what all children shouldRead MoreTechnology Into Early Childhood Education4370 Words   |  18 PagesIntroduction Earlier research was more concerned with weather or not technology; including computers were, in fact, beneficial to childrens learning. Current research is concerned with how technology can be used to support childrens learning and development (Morrison, 2009). Acronyms like PC, CD, DVD, PDA, DSL, eBay, and .com, are part of our professional vocabulary right alongside ECE†¦ technology has changed the way we teach children (Donohue, 2003). This author takes the position that technology is beneficialRead MoreEssay on America’s Schools Need Character Education5183 Words   |  21 PagesA question that often finds itself as the focus of curriculum debates and school planning discussions is that of moral and character development. Does character development have a place in our schools? Should public schools take the responsibility of educating students on morality? The answer is complex and has a multitude of sides and opinions. In a way, however, schools already educate st udents on what to believe and how to behave. By excluding the history of the other Americans, such as peopleRead MoreEducation for Sustainable Development5161 Words   |  21 PagesEducation for Sustainable development – strategies for School Improvement Investigation of strategies for education for sustainable development and School improvement. 1. Introduction a. Rationale The Department for Children Schools and Families (DCSF) would like all schools to be sustainable by 2020 and to prepare students for a lifetime of sustainable living through its teaching, its fabric and its day to day activities. It is guided by a commitment to care for oneself, for each otherRead More Inclusive School Communities Essay4777 Words   |  20 PagesInclusive School Communities One of the most significant and controversial trends in education today is the inclusion of children and youth with disabilities into general education classrooms. Inclusion refers to the practice of educating all students regardless of disability in the same classroom as students without disabilities. Though the term is relatively new, the underlying principle is not, and reflects the belief that students with disabilities should be educated in the least restrictiveRead MoreSex Education Should Be Taught in School2204 Words   |  9 PagesSEX EDUCATION â€Å"If the Liberals law is passed, will sex education in the schools, including elementary grades, include the same portrayals of sexual activity which presently exist in heterosexual instruction? Will there be the same presentation of homosexual activity? Of course there will.†Ã‚   Stockwell Day Sex education, also known as sexuality education or sex and relationshipsRead MoreDescribe with Examples How Schools May Demonstrate and Uphold Their Aims:14953 Words   |  60 Pagesand young person to have a range of choice to enable them to access a school that will meet their individual needs. Between the ages of five to sixteen every child and young person in England and Wales are entitled to a free place at a state school. Approximately ninety three per cent of children are educated in state-maintained schools; the majority are referred to as mainstream or ordinary schools. Mainstream schools are all funded by the local authorities, follow the national curriculum and areRead MoreTda 2.4 Equality, Diversity and Inclusion in Work with Children and Young People.3124 Words   |  13 Pageswith children and young people. In this essay i will be discussing equality amongst children, inclusion, inclusiveness and diversity and how to put these things mentioned into practise when working with children and young people. 1, Understand the importance of promoting equality and diversity in work with children and young people. 1.1 Identify the current legislation and codes of practise relevant to the promotion of equality and valuing of diversity. Current Legislations Children ActRead MoreRole of Environment in Child Development4234 Words   |  17 Pagesamongst others. An early childhood environment is many things: Its a safe place where children are protected from the elements and are easily supervised, and its where the important activities of the day take place, such as playing, eating, sleeping, washing hands, and going to the bathroom. Beyond the basics, however, an environment for young children implements and supports a programs philosophy and curriculum. Childhood is the most important phase for overall development throughout the lifespan

Research Report Analysis And Critique - 1465 Words

Name: Jennifer Kressel Points: _____/15 Research Report Analysis and Critique ATTACH A COPY OF THE ARTICLE TO THIS FORM. Author: Mollie Galloway, Jerusha Conner, and Denise Pope Title: Nonacademic Effects of Homework in Privileged, High-Performing High Schools Source: The Journal of Experimental Education Galloway, M., Conner, J., Pope, D. (2013). Nonacademic effects of homework in privileged, high-performing high schools. The Journal of Experimental Education, 81(4), 490-510. doi:10.1080/00220973.2012.745469 Researcher(s): ____ Classroom teacher(s) __x__ University-based researcher(s) ____ Other: ____________________________________ Data†¦show more content†¦491) ____ Stated, but not as a question (p. ____) ____ Implied _____/2 Pts. Participants and Setting: Who were the participants? What was the setting? Why were they chosen? The study was based on surveying a sample of 4,713 students at 10 high schools in the San Francisco Bay area. The subjects came from high-performing high schools in upper middle class communities. †¢ four public †¢ six private According to Galloway, Conner, and Pope (2013), â€Å"All of the schools in [the] study were college preparatory schools in advantaged, upper middle class communities and had elected to participate in the study as part of the larger research and intervention project† (495). _____ /3 Pts. Data Collection: What data were collected? Comment on the â€Å"trustworthiness† of the data (e.g., Do the participants talk as â€Å"real† second-graders do?) and the â€Å"doability† of data collection (e.g., How difficult would it be for you to collect this data?). The student survey included Likert-type and open-ended questions. Likert-type questions assessed students’ self-reported homework load and perceptions of homework load, well-being (stress over schoolwork, performance anxiety, physical health, sleep behavior, and time for outside activities), behavioral engagement, and enjoyment of schoolwork.The open-ended questions were posed in the middle of the survey, The Data Collected: Nightly homework hours (by Grade and Gender) †¢ On average, students reported spending 3.11 hr. per

The Alchemist Book Review - 984 Words

* Mundane Wisdom Book review of â€Å"The Alchemist† Regine Carlo N. Alvarez BSBA-FTM/ I-2 The theme of the phenomenal novel â€Å"The Alchemist† written by Paulo Coelho revolves around dreams, symbols, and adventure. It tells of a young shepherd named Santiago who travels around Andalusia and once dreams of a treasure hidden in the pyramids of Egypt. It is a book full of wisdom and life lessons used to achieved one’s dreams and fulfill self-happiness. The story opens in the mythical region of Andalusia in Spain. The shepherd travels along this place to feed his sheep and to sell wool to merchants. There he finds peace in the familiarity of the place, until his dream is interpreted by a gypsy woman and meets the King†¦show more content†¦Because of his help, the shop grows financially stable and more people go to his place atop the hill. When he saves enough money to go to Egypt, he finds a caravan to take him there. In Al-Fayoum, he meets a lot of tribesmen in tents surrounding the oasis. There are also a great number of women and children living i n the area. He also meets the woman he is going to love forever – Fatima. A desert woman by heart, she willingly waits for Santiago to go back after his search of the treasure is over. Santiago seeks wisdom from the alchemist – a man with the elixir of life and the philosopher’s stone. This man aids the shepherd to reach the treasure in the pyramids, and he learns that the destination is not the most important thing rather the experiences along the way and the knowledge one gains throughout one’s journey. One of the conflicts in this novel is when Santiago, the young shepherd tries to accept or more accurately, tries to believe the concept of â€Å"Personal Legend†. This illustrates a man against himself conflict. The Englishman and Santiago have a rather pretty discussion about whether one has to read books or one has to pay more attention to the caravan. This describes indifference with the two characters’ personalities; shows a man agains t man conflict. There is also a man against society conflict. It is when Santiago robbed by an Arab in Tangier. The young shepherd is helpless and wants to give up, but suddenly thinks of his dream and the King of Salem’sShow MoreRelatedThe Life of Paulo Coelho1274 Words   |  5 PagesPaulo Coelho is a famous author that has written many popular works in these past few decades. He is most notably known for The Alchemist, which was written in 1988. The Alchemist was â€Å"one of the greatest best-sellers of all times† (Kaaki). During his lifetime, Coelho went through many obstacles; the most notable event was getting an electrical shock when he was in a mental institution and getting placed into prison. He was able to move past all of these difficulties and became a well-known authorRead MoreThe Alchemist by Paulo Coelho1168 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"The Alchemist† was originally written in Portuguese by a famous Brazilian author Paulo Coelho. The bookâ€⠄¢s original title is â€Å"O Alqumistia†. The book was first published in 1988 which is since then been translated into 56 different languages and is one of the bestselling books of the history. This translation of the book was written by Alan R. Clarke and was first published by Harper Collins Publishers in 1993. The genres of the book are fiction, fantasy, psychology, drama. The writer followingRead MoreAnalysis Of Paulo Coelho s The Alchemist 1378 Words   |  6 Pages ASSIGNMENT NAME: Abhishek Aggarwal DIVISION AND ROLL NUMBER: C-003 DATE OF SUBMISSION: 9th MARCH 2016 Title of the book: ‘The Alchemist’ Written by: Paulo Coelho WHY THIS PARTICULAR BOOK? I have always been interested in books and movies which have a strong message.According to the critics’ review,Paulo Coelho’s books have had a life-enhancing impact on millions of people. It tells people that they should follow their dreams and should not be afraid of the failuresRead MoreHistorical Perspective of Alcoholism2104 Words   |  9 Pagesliquid (boiling point 78.5 º C). Ethanol, produced by fermentation as in wine or beer or by synthesis, is a dilute solution and must be concentrated by distillation for making other alcoholic beverages or pure ethanol for injections. This article will review the origins of alcohol and its many uses throughout history. Early Alcoholism Since antiquity, alcohol-containing beverages played a vital part in the daily lives of ancient people. Beer, from fermented barley, is the earliest known alcoholicRead More Frankenstein: The Impact of God-like Sciences Stemming from Modern Technology1317 Words   |  6 PagesImpact of God-like Sciences Stemming from Modern Technology In Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein, Victor Frankenstein’s life story is the heart of the tale. As a young Swiss boy, he grew up in Geneva reading the works of the ancient and outdated alchemists, a background that serves him ill when he attends university at Ingolstadt. There he learns about modern science and, within a few years, masters all that his professors have to teach him. He becomes fascinated with the â€Å"secret of life,† discoversRead MoreAstrology and Alchemy - the Occult Roots of the Mbti4990 Words   |  20 Pagesorganisation and management, which is surprising given the continuing popularity of astrology. Aside from some research into how marketing executives are using astrology to target products and services more effectively, a small number of business books written by professional astrologers and some interest in the financial world, the field remains largely unexplored. Why does astrology appeal to the executive world? Where and how is it being deployed, and what are the organisational consequences?Read MoreThe Rude Awakening By Mary Shelley2059 Words   |  9 Pagesdid. Janet Horowitz Murray writes a review of Shelley’s Frankenstein in her article named â€Å"My Monster, Myself†, she adds her interpretation stating, â€Å"Mary Shelley s is the story of a woman who tried to live out a feminist vision of womanly dignity and freedom of choice - her dead mother s vision - in a world that was not ready for it (16). Women in her era were devalued as being any sort of a serious author. In consequence, when Shelley first published her book at age nineteen, she deliberatelyRead MoreThe Birthmark, Rappaccini’s Daughter and the Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde1922 Words   |  8 PagesAlymer is so obsessed with this mark that he exclaims â€Å"I even rejoice in this single imperfection, since it will be a rapture to remove it!† (Hawthorne,1026). Finally, after concocting a potion in his laboratory which resembles that of an ancient alchemist, Alymer gives Georgiana this â€Å"draught of immortality;† she drinks it and the birthmark fades away, resulting in her immediate death (Hawthorne, 1031). Aylmer depicts a â€Å"mad scientist† because he secludes himself in his laboratory to initiate hisRead MoreEminem4792 Words   |  20 Pageswhich saw his lyrics take a decidedly darker turn, in songs like No Ones Iller and Murder Murder, the latter of which he talks about having to commit crimes to feed his daughter.[12][13] After this album he received much attention and mixed reviews in the hip-hop underground scene, due to his distinctive style and the fact that he was white in a predominantly black genre. Mathers had done a notable amount of rapping with fellow Detroit MC Royce da 59 early in his career. They referred toRead MoreA Short History of Nearly Everything6112 Words   |  25 PagesA Short History of Nearly Everything is a popular science book by American author Bill Bryson that explains some areas of science, using a style of language which aims to be more accessible to the general public than many other books dedicated to the subject. It was one of the bestselling popular science books of 2005 in the UK, selling over 300,000 copies.[1] instead describing general sciences such as chemistry, paleontology, astronomy, and particle physics. In it, he explores time from the Big

Philosophy of the Human Person free essay sample

For me, the whole point of doing philosophy, of understanding who we are and what we are as humans, and of understanding our lives can be compared to the simple act of writing that as a student, I can very much relate to. I personally love to write, especially in my native language, Tagalog. Each time I decide that I want to write, I can think of the best beginning and end that would perfectly support my chosen topic. However, as I write, I tend to stop. In the course of my writing, the ideas and thoughts that I previously had seem to cease and I cannot go on. I often find myself thinking and wondering what would be the best direction I can take to be able to reach that perfect ending that I had in mind. I get confused a lot and most of the time, I become undecided. Now that I think about it, this is no different from the life that we live as individuals, and as part of society. As humans, we always already know that our existence in this world has a definite beginning and end—that is, birth and death. We know for a fact that our time on this earth is limited; that we are mere mortals. And it is precisely because of this fact that we often find ourselves worrying, and sometimes even fearing, the idea of death. We are very anxious of making our lives worthwhile so that we can say to ourselves in the end that we have lived a good life. We will all end up with the same fate and there is nothing we can do about it. In the end, what would matter is how we have lived our lives—what we have done, what we have achieved—in reaching that end which is death. In other words, what matters is the direction that we have chosen for ourselves in living the life that we want. However, for me, there is no better achievement that a man can get than to understand who he is and what he is as a person. In our lives, we would often be confronted with different challenges, we would be introduced to various cultures, ideas, and concepts, and we would meet people who differ from us. All these experiences, and their influences, can change the way we view our lives, and even the way we view the world. These, too, can have an effect on the direction that we have chosen for ourselves. We will get confused. We will doubt if the path that we are on is the right one. This confusion—doubt— now leads us to the main argument of this essay. This will revolve around the idea that we, humans, are thinking beings and that we are capable of discerning what is right from wrong—that we have the ability to make decisions for ourselves in living our lives. This essay will explain the relationship between the idea that we are thinking beings and why we do philosophy, why we question, the problem of philosophy, our existence, the existence of others, language, and self-understanding. We, humans, have always been curious about our surroundings. We never fail to wonder. We have this innate characteristic of wanting to know how things work. This natural curiosity could be traced back to the Greeks. During the ancient times, the Greeks were always in awe and in astonishment for nature. They concentrated on what is there—on reality as it presented itself. What mattered for them was the nature of things: how they worked, and what it is that is already contained in each thing. In other words, they valued the substance or the whatness of things. For ancient thinkers, things existed by acting out their substance—their whatness—which remained potentially in them. In applying the notion of substance to human beings, Aristotle asked, â€Å"What is the substance of being human, and how is it acted out? † Aldo Tassi gave an answer to this question by saying that, â€Å"The world of Aristotle is populated by entities each of which possesses a nature enabling it, by virtue of its relationship to other things, to be or to develop what it is. The terms by which anything is are already fully contained in each thing and if we are to do justice to things, we must allow ourselves to be engaged by these terms. Looking at the nature which man displays in the various relationships he enters into with his fellowmen, it becomes apparent that the political order is the context which gives the greatest scope for man to be or to develop who he is in relation to his fellows (Tassi 1985, 190). † The nature of the human being for Aristotle, then, was to speak—to be in relation with others. According to him, persons must engage in politics. It is where man finds his purpose. Man, therefore, is a political animal; a rational animal. Now, what I have done so far is prove that we, humans, are hinking beings. What I am trying to get at here is prove that it is because of this idea that we are able to understand and direct our lives. For the next part of this essay, I will try to prove why thinking leads us to self-understanding. First, it is precisely because we are thinking beings that we do philosophy. During the earlier part of this course we have established that what we do in philosophy is thinking. However, it has not come to me until now that there seems to be a problem with this argument. Do we do philosophy because we think or do we think because we do philosophy? Philosophy is something that we do, perform, and commit. Along with many other sciences, it is an activity. But in order to be able to perform something, we have to have a foundation—perhaps knowledge—about a certain activity. Therefore, I firmly believe that we have to have the thought first before we can do philosophy. However, we would not really explain what is around us if we do not ask ourselves first what it is that surrounds us. In other words, we question. The human person is defined by an infinite thirst for knowledge, for the truth, for life and for love. According to Karl Rahner, we are defined by the dynamism of transcendence. We have an a priori tendency to go beyond ourselves, to transcend objects, and to constantly seek to find more and more knowledge to find the truth. It is already innate in human nature to seek to discover mysteries that are sometimes beyond our knowing. According to Kavanaugh, there is an assumption that all individuals are driven to authenticate who they are. The initiation of philosophy, therefore, is the act of questioning—particularly the kind of questioning that asks â€Å"Who am I? Questioning, for me then, is a life-long experience that we do until the end. â€Å"Every man wants to know himself and do something about himself. (Kavanaugh 1970, 21)† The self is closest to us but it is that which we are most unfamiliar with. This unfamiliarity with who and what we are necessitates our need to question. We need to be open to what and who we are. However, as we age, the way we view the world changes, the kinds of questions we ask change,and together with these, we change. The same thing goes for the things we write about. I have experienced a lot of times, while writing, the feeling of being uncertain about what to say next. I ask myself, â€Å"Is this the best statement to follow that previous one? † Sometimes, I even have doubts if what I am writing coheres with the whole idea of the topic. And when I run out of things to say, I seek help from others. I either ask them about their opinions or ideas or go to the library to research. Now, if I may relate this to philosophy, it stems from the fact that we, humans, are thinking beings that the problem of philosophy arises. Philosophy is not an acquisition of knowledge. However, in a considerably long period of time now, this is what seems to be the impression that people have about philosophy. We often see philosophy as a science of learning things just for the sake of learning them. Moreover, the astonishment, the harmony, the correspondence of humans to the nature of things has been lost through time. Our relation to the whatness of things has been obscured and confused. Before, people wondered what their place in the world was. They wanted to know what their purpose was and they understood themselves based on what is there. Today, we are faced with a completely different scenario. Nowadays, people ask â€Å"What is the place of that thing in relation to me? † From a cosmocentric view of the world, men have shifted to an anthropocentric one. This view of the world can be mainly attributed to the French philosopher Rene Descartes. He recognized the fact that error exists and therefore, he felt the need to be critical and asked himself, â€Å"How can I distinguish what is true from what is false? † For modern thinkers, â€Å"natural† observation was not enough; it was necessary to put nature â€Å"on the rack†Ã¢â‚¬â€that is, to manipulate nature—in order to know anything with certainty. As Tassi quoted Francis Bacon, â€Å"simple observation is not sufficient to give us scientific knowledge. We must vary the circumstances in order to induce nature to give up her secrets; that is, we must put nature ‘on the rack. ’ (Tassi 1982, 185)† Descartes did this by doubting everything outside the â€Å"I† and his way of â€Å"paying attention† explicitly showed how much he wanted to avoid uncertainty—error. With his universal methodic doubt, Descartes was able to come up with the conclusion that his proposition, â€Å"I am, I exist, is necessarily true each time I pronounce it, or that I mentally conceive it. Gallagher 1984, 32)† With this, we are led to the coincidence of thought and existence. What good Descartes has contributed to philosophy is that he introduced the idea that it is precisely because we, humans, think that we exist. However, when Descartes has proven the certainty of the â€Å"I† when he said that †Å"all beings which think exist,† his next task of proving the existence of the not-â€Å"I† has become very problematic. He failed to realize that human consciousness, or knowledge, is bipolar. For Thomas Aquinas, the subject can only know if it has already known its object. Therefore, we always already are aware of the existence of that thing which we think of or talk about. As Edmund Husserl stressed in his concept of intentionality, to be conscious is to be related to something—that which consciousness intends. â€Å"The nature of a conscious act is such that the act is reference to another. It intends, or tends out to its other; the intelligibility of consciousness is its intentionality. (Gallagher 1984, 49)† Now, the whole idea of existence can be perfectly elaborated by going back to the act of writing as an example. Why do we write in the first place? For me, personally, people write because they do not want to be forgotten. They want, in the smallest of ways, to leave something that would last forever. This is precisely because we know that we are mortals. For some, writing is their way of telling the whole world that they exist. They want to express how they feel and they want to be heard. Sometimes, we write because we want to escape the complexities of the reality that we are in and we create our own world with what we write. Here, we try, as much as possible, to change whatever it is that we do not like about our own realities. Therefore, writing proves the existence of the person who writes. On the other hand, we write because we have an audience. We write because we always intend for someone to read our work. If one’s main purpose in writing is to prove his existence, then this gives us the idea that he wants to prove his existence to someone other than himself. In other words, what we write is supposed to be shared. Otherwise, if one keeps it to himself, he does away from the main purpose of his writing. Simply put, the act of writing proves the existence of the â€Å"I† and the non-â€Å"I. If we go back to Aristotle’s concept of the nature of the human being, that is, to speak and be in relation to others, then we can say that by performing the act of writing, we are serving our purpose as humans. With this, several questions arise: â€Å"How exactly do we write? How do we relate to others? How do we speak to them? † This is where the concept of language comes in. We can ne ver separate man from language. â€Å"We can only think in a language, and just this residing of our thinking in a language is the profound enigma that language presents to thought. Gadamer 1976, 62)† Therefore, it is precisely because we are thinking beings that we are able to communicate with one another. Language has constituted a big part in our discussion of the philosophy of the human person. This may be attributed to the fact that it is in the presence of language that we exhibit our nature and serve our purpose and consequently, become humans. As Gadamer puts it, we are always already familiar with language. â€Å"We are always already at home in language, just as much as we are in the world. Gadamer 1976, 63)† And, when we talk about language, we cannot avoid the concept of speaking. Like consciousness, when we speak a language, it is always intended towards someone. Language is always shared. â€Å"Whoever speaks a language that no one understands does not s peak. To speak means to speak to someone. (Gadamer 1976, 65)† Because of thing sharing of language, when we speak, the words we utter are always open to interpretation. The same thing goes for writing. When a person writes, it cannot be helped that what he knows will affect the output of his work. After all, it is his work. Whatever cultural backgrounds that person is from and whatever his beliefs are, all this will greatly influence the kind of writing that he does. However, once a person has written something and has shared it to the whole world, the text suddenly acquires its own entity. It now has its own being. â€Å"Writing renders the text autonomous with respect to the intention of the author. What the text signifies no longer coincides with what the author meant. (Ricoeur 1986, 83)† It is when we write that we get to express what we like, what we believe in, and how we want certain things to be. It is when we write that we understand ourselves better—just like when we read. I believe that our writing mirrors our lives. It reflects the way we view the world, the kind of person we want to be, and where we want to be. We understand ourselves when we write. We write because we have a language. We have a language because we think. Remember what I said about fearing that we might not have lived our lives to the fullest when confronted by death. In the end, it is all a matter of choice. After all, we are a rational being. Only we have the right to direct our lives. Yes, at times we will doubt, we will ask if we are on the right path. But, whatever path we choose to take for ourselves, it will be right depending on how we look at it—how we interpret it. Ayn Rand said, Man has been called a rational being, but rationality is a matter of choice — and the alternative his nature offers him is: rational being or suicidal animal. Man has to be man — by choice; he has to hold his life as a value — by choice; he has to learn to sustain it — by choice; he has to discover the values it requires and practice his virtues — by choice. Works Cited